Definition and Examples of Linguistic Prestige

In sociolinguistics, linguistic prestige is the degree of esteem and social value attached by members of a speech community to certain languages, dialects, or features of a language variety. Social and linguistic prestige is interrelated, notes Michael Pearce. The language of powerful social groups usually carries linguistic prestige; and social prestige is often granted to speakers of prestige languages and varieties (Routledge Dictionary of English Language Studies, 2007). Linguists draw important distinctions between overt prestige and covert prestige: In the case of overt prestige, the social valuation lies in a unified, widely accepted set of social norms, whereas with covert prestige the positive social significance lies in the local culture of social relations. It is, therefore, possible for a socially stigmatized variant in one setting to have covert prestige in another (Walt Wolfram, Social Varieties of American English, 2004). Examples and Observations: Linguistic prestige is directly associated with power. As [Thomas Paul] Bonfiglio (2002:23) puts it, There is nothing in the particular language itself that determines its worth: it is the connection of the language in question to the phenomena of power that determines the value of that language and that contributes to the standardization process.(Gerard Van Herk, What Is Sociolinguistics? Wiley-Blackwell, 2012) Old English certainly had words for language and female and face, and we could perfectly well have carried on using them [after the Norman invasion], but the much greater prestige of French induced many English-speakers to introduce French words into their speech in the hope of sounding more elegant. This attitude is always with us: French no longer enjoys quite the prestige it once had, but you may perhaps know someone who cannot resist spattering his English speech or writing with such French words and phrases as au contraire, joie de vivre, au naturel, fin de sià ¨cle and derrià ¨re. (R.L. Trask, Language: The Basics, 2nd ed. Routledge, 1999) Prestige in Grammar In grammar, most prestige forms are related to prescriptive norms of standardness or even literary norms. For example, the use of whom in Whom did you see? or the placement of never at the front of the sentence Never have I seen a more gruesome sight might be considered prestige variants in some social contexts. Apart from these somewhat special cases, it is difficult to find clear-cut cases of prestige variants on the grammatical level of language, particularly in the grammar of ordinary informal conversation...For present-day American English, it is clear that the vast majority of socially diagnostic structures exist on the axis of stigmatization rather than the axis of prestige.(Walt Wolfram, Social Varieties of American English. Language in the USA: Themes for the Twenty-First Century, ed. by Edward Finegan and John R. Rickford. Cambridge University Press, 2004) Overt and Covert Prestige A standard dialect speaker of English who intentionally switches to use of social markers such as aint and he dont is said to seek covert prestige. Such prestige is covert because its elicitation will often not, if successful, be consciously noted.Deliberate (as opposed to instinctive) use of taboo words such as fuck and shit, usage which tends to characterize male more than female speech, may also seek covert prestige, but the strength of these as social markers makes this more difficult to achieve. In a contrasting register, one uses unusually formal non-vernacular forms in vernacular contexts. For example, one will ordinarily say Its me to the question Who is it? asked by a familiar interlocutor, but, when asked the same question by one from whom one seeks prestige, the same speaker may say It is I. Similarly, except after prepositions Americans ordinarily say who in preference to whom: Who did you ask?, not Whom did you ask?  but in some circumstances, the latter may be substituted. Such usage is said to seek overt prestige because the often dubious prestige one gets from such usage is ordinarily consciously noted, hence overt. One may use jargon similarly seeking overt prestige, saying, for example, semantics when nothing more than ordinary meaning is intended.(Grover Hudson, Essential Introductory Linguistics. Blackwell, 2000) Labov on Prestige and Gender [American linguist William Labov developed] three principles regarding the linguistic behavior of men and women: 1. For stable sociolinguistic variants, women show a slower rate of stigmatized variants and a higher rate of prestige variants than men (Labov 2001: 266)2. In linguistic change from above, women adopt prestige forms at a higher rate than men (Labov 2001: 274)3. In linguistic change from below, women use higher frequencies of innovative forms than men do (Labov 2001: 292) Ultimately, Labov formulates the corresponding Gender Paradox: Women conform more closely than men to sociolinguistic norms that are overtly prescribed, but conform less than men when they are not.(Labov 2001: 293) All these principles and the Gender Paradox itself appear to be fairly robust findings with almost universal applicability in contemporary sociolinguistics...[E]very language period and every language community must be investigated independently and in its own right (pace Jardin 2000). The actual concepts and functions of class, gender, networks, and, most importantly, norms, standards, and prestige, differ radically in different communities.(Alexander Bergs, The Uniformitarian Principle and the Risk of Anachronisms in Language and Social History. The Handbook of Historical Sociolinguistics, ed. by Juan M. Hernà ¡ndez-Campoy and Juan Camilo Conde-Silvestre. Wiley-Blackwell, 2012) Prestige, Status, and Function What do we mean by status and function? The two terms are often confused with one another and also with another term, prestige. Basically, the essential difference between prestige, function, and status is the difference between past, present, and future. The prestige of a language depends on its record, or what people think its record to have been. The function of a language is what people actually do with it. The status of a language depends on what people can do with it, its potential. Status, therefore, is the sum total of what you can do with a language--legally, culturally, economically, politically and, of course, demographically. This is not necessarily the same as what you do with the language, although the two notions are obviously related, and indeed interdependent. They can also be connected with the prestige of a language. Let us illustrate the differences. Classical Latin has had a lot of prestige but it has few functions. Swahili has a lot of functions, but little pres tige. Irish Gaelic has status, official status, but few exclusive functions.(William F. Mackey, Determining the Status and Function of Languages in Multinational Societies. Status and Function of Languages and Language Varieties, ed. by Ulrich Ammo. Walter de Gruyter, 1989)

Gender Roles Of The American Film And Television Industry

Gender Slaves The America film and television industry’s excessive use of stereotypical gender roles has negatively influenced society. Stereotypical gender roles are based on standards expected of males and females. Men are considered to be financial providers, career motivated and aggressive. Whereas women have been represented as low position workers, loving wives and mothers. Despite television programs and films that attempt to promote positive concepts about gender, male superiority over women is still a reoccurring theme. Television programs and films are continuing to reinforce the image of female inferiority. The oppressive representation of women directly influences sexism ideologies. In â€Å"Putting the Me Back in Medical Drama: Grey’s Anatomy’s adventures in Mcfeminism,† Lara Hayhurst explains that males are placed at a higher pedestal than women regardless if the woman and man share the same position of power. While Lara Hayhurst argues that males are p laced in a higher pedestal, James Cameron’s award winning film Avatar encourages male dominance and sexism. The female characters are placed in a high position of status such as a scientist and a helicopter pilot. Although the film attempts to diverge from common gender stereotypes, the dominant male sex has more authority in the film. This essay discusses the issues of why women in the mass media continue to display as inferior to the man even when placed in a position of status. In addition, American isShow MoreRelatedThe White-Washed Screen: Misrepresentation Of Minorities817 Words   |  4 PagesMisrepresentation of Minorities in American Media Television and film is a huge part of American culture. As the â€Å"face† of America changes, it is expected for our media to reflect it. Unfortunately, this is not the case. Since the beginning of film, minorities have been misrepresented and underrepresented. 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The Crucible Research Paper Free Essays

John Doe The Crucible Research Paper Around the same, beginning in the 1940’s, both McCarthyism and the imprisoning of the Japanese after Pearl Harbor were taking place. Senator Joseph McCarthy went house to house searching and questioning people he believed were communist. If you were accused of being communist you were put on a list called the â€Å"red-list†, which meant that your passport was taken away, your job was at stake or you were sent to jail. We will write a custom essay sample on The Crucible Research Paper or any similar topic only for you Order Now Immediately after Pearl Harbor was attacked, the President declared that everyone of Japanese decent could be a possible threat to the American people. The Japanese families all over the nation were sent to internment camps, much like those of the Holocaust. The fortunate ones were told to pack one suitcase and leave their homes and move to their new location, given by the government of course. McCarthyism and the Japanese Internment Camps have several similarities and a few differences. To begin, in both cases, the subject at hand was blown out of proportion with inadequate evidence against both the so-called communists and the supposed Japanese spies. â€Å"McCarthy’s relentless pursuit of communist ‘subversives‘ took the witch-hunt to new heights. After the cold war, the threat of communism intensified. Several people, including celebrities, were red-listed. There was absolutely no proof that these people were even communist. After the attack on Pearl Harbor, President Franklin Roosevelt was convinced that there were Japanese spies here in America. Again, with no factual evidence that these people of Japanese decent were spying for Japan, they were all taken from their homes and places in internment camps or moved to a different location with no explanation. The US justified their action by claiming that there was a danger of those of Japanese descent spying for the Japanese. † To wrap up, during McCarthyism and the Japanese Interment Camps, both were prisoned unfairly without evidence or trial. Secondly, the two topics at hand differed because with the Japanese, the only people that were moved and or imprisoned were those of Japanese decent, but with the red scare, anyone could possibly be accused. During the time the Japanese were being sent to the internment camps, under the order of President Roosevelt, everyone knew what was going on and exactly who the accused were. On the contrary, while McCarthy was persistently hunting for those who could possible be communists with the thought of overthrowing our Republic, none of the common people knew who or when the next ‘communist’ would be red-listed, or maybe jailed. Mad chaos went through the county in both cases. To conclude, both McCarthyism and the Japanese Internment camps compared and contrasted in a few ways. In both time periods, people were jailed without any proof that they were guilty, chaos was insane due to the random imprisonment of loved ones and friends. However the two contrasted because during McCarthyism several people of many different ethnic backgrounds were red-listed and when the Japanese were being sent to internment camps or relocated, specifically the Japanese were targeted. Works Cited â€Å"History Study Center – Home Page. † History Study Center – Home Page. N. p. , 2002. Web. 27 Nov. 2012. â€Å"Internment History. † PBS. PBS, n. d. Web. 29 Nov. 2012. Miller, Arthur. â€Å"McCarthyism. † PBS. PBS, 23 Aug. 2006. Web. 26 Nov. 2012. â€Å"World War Two – Japanese Internment Camps in the USA. † World War Two. N. p. , 10 Sept. 2012. Web. 30 Nov. 2012. How to cite The Crucible Research Paper, Essays

Child Parent free essay sample

Child Parent by A. V., Old Orchard Beach, ME Ive become a 17-year-old mother of two boys. I didnt give birth to them or supply them with names yet now theyre mine, and I have no choice whether I want them or not. I worry when they cram their mouths with junk food. I gripe at them when they watch tasteless shows like Ricki Lake. I complain when they wrestle in the living room, pretending that theyre ninja warriors. Ive become overly protective of my brothers, half in love, half in obligation. Being the oldest, Ive been thrust into the spot of authority figure with a teenage attitude. Ive lost my interest in causing trouble and experimenting with my own freedom. Im the scowling older sister who yells and interferes when she has no such right. I cant raise children. I dont want that parental responsibility. We will write a custom essay sample on Child Parent or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page I watch my actions, maintain maturity and stifle my urge to go crazy, hoping that my examples will be noticed. Jordan sees me as a bossy jerk. Joey sees me as entertainment when I tickle him in his armpits and spider walk him across the kitchen, but he cant understand why I scowl at him when hes watching Power Rangers at 6 a.m. He doesnt know that I only want to keep his fragile brain from being scattered and distorted. Im choking my brothers with an urgency to save them from being hurt. It is quite evident that I am not happy with their obnoxious actions, but in caring for them, I am anxious and nervous. Parenting is too intense for me. Saturday night arrives. Jordan is at the dance, Joey is in bed, Mom, reading in her room with the music up loud, tells me to go out and do something for awhile. I know where they are and feel no need to worry. I let myself break away, going out to a friends house for a little excitement. Its 1: 30 and the party is breaking down. Everyone is slowly letting themselves slip into the dead unconsciousness following a rowdy night of brain-cell killing. Im sitting there, ice-cold sober, wondering how theyre all feeling, thinking What am I doing here? I laugh at their silliness, slurred mumbling, and woozy cavorting. Now theyre filled with unnatural substances, falling asleep like logs on the carpet. They had fun. I cant let go of my obligation. I like to come home and look Mom in the eye, knowing that she has nothing to hang over my head. My friends cant gossip about my embarrassing displays at last weeks party because there werent any. Im too responsible. Im so moral that Im probably abnormal. I know that there is nothing wrong with this seemingly unprecedented behavior, but balance, damnit! I feel like a moron, purposely scheduling screw-off time. Doesnt that happen naturally? This sudden change from teenager to adult has put me in turmoil. With Dad gone, the man of the house is missing. The father figure, husband, and security is gone. Now Mom and I share the household responsibility, but at different levels. She has been where Ive been. Ive never been in her place to see lifes unfolding trials. I want to be a child. I want to experience these years with curiosity and hope. Im too young to be a mom. Im too old to be innocent. I cant close my eyes to what lies ahead. I have emotionally adapted to lifes changes and I feel that I am stable enough to meet those tough challenges in these metamorphic years. I will not be shocked and disorientated when life throws me a curve ball. I feel that I am ready to overcome the harshness of growing up. The child parent within me is ready.

The Art of War Essay Sample free essay sample

The rule outlined in theArt of Waris a powerful tool in direction. although it was intended for soldierly humanistic disciplines. Harmonizing to Cleary ( 1988 ) . Japan greatly benefited from this book in which said: â€Å"In Japan. which was transformed straight from a feudal civilization into a corporate civilization virtually nightlong. †¦ have applied the scheme of this ancient classic to modern political relations and concern with similar briskness. Indeed. some see in the successes of post-war Japan an illustration of Sun Tzu’s pronouncement of the authoritative. ‘To win without contending is best’ . † ( Cleary. 1988 ) . This is to demo that although the Sun Tzu’s book is ancient. it holds cosmopolitan truth that it is still applicable today ; that the pronouncements are â€Å"source of the penetrations into human nature† ( Cleary. 1988 ) . Japan’s success did non come from its armed forces as their leaders thought that started a war but on the â€Å"invincibility. triumph without conflict. We will write a custom essay sample on The Art of War Essay Sample or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page and impregnable strength through apprehension of the natural philosophies. political relations. and psychological science of conflict† ( Cleary. 1988 ) . The chief thought of its pertinence to modern direction is that to win and get the better of direction jobs. it is non to utilize beastly force or forward resistance but: â€Å"a maestro warrior is similarly the 1 who knows the psychological science and mechanics of struggle so closely that every move of an opposition is seen through at one time. and one who is able to move in precise agreement with state of affairss. siting on their natural forms with a lower limit of attempt. † ( Cleary. 1988 ) . If one should utilize it in modern scene. it is to state that one should clearly see and expect the struggle or job before it happens. Therefore in the pronouncements â€Å"The leader program in the beginning when they do things† and â€Å"Leaders consider jobs and prevent them† are clear statements that in direction one should expect and see all side before puting out for a â€Å"fight† or enterprise ( Cleary. 1988 ) . TheArt of Waris like a modern direction text edition divided into Strategy rules. Making the Battle. Planing a Siege. and Leadership. These can be translated to modern concern direction as Planing a Business venture. Implementing a Business Venture. Defeating Competition and Good Management Leadership. Plants Cited Sun Tzu.The Art of War. Trans. Thomas Cleary. Boston. Massachusetts: Shambala Publications. 1988.

I Gave it My All free essay sample

I was used to sitting on the sidelines. I always watched my 18-month older brother, Myles, smack the red stitched ball through the outfield. I was known as Myles’ little sister. I handed out the water, picked up the bats and gave cookies to the boys after every game. But this time, it was different. â€Å"We need you Makaela,† my dad said trying to persuade me. My dad, being the coach of my brother’s team, insisted that I fill in that last position. â€Å"There are not enough players and without you we can’t play.† Doubt flushed through me, but I couldn’t show my panic, so I hesitantly accepted this offer. As I did I felt the slightest bit of confidence. Every day after school I would practice with my dad and brother. They would push me. I knew I was the team’s only option, and I knew I had to prove myself. We will write a custom essay sample on I Gave it My All or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page I wanted to be more than just Myles’ little sister. My dad handed me an extra uniform. Although it was flowing well past my knees, I felt as if I was meant to be on this team. The older boys gave me a high five and threw some sun flower seeds in my hand. With my blue Nike sandals strapped to my feet, I fled to outfield. No action. But I was ready; every time a pitch was thrown I jumped to my toes as if it were coming straight at me. My brother told me not many hits went to that side of the outfield, but I did not want to take any chances. I was last on the batting line-up. I knew I could hit a moving pitch. I have practiced in the back yard many times prior. No action. I walked to first base. The game proceeded. I kept my eye on the ball where every it went. The game was coming to an end, and we were down by two runs. I was standing on first base, looking at my teammate on third. There was one out, and my brother was up to bat. As the pitch was thrown, I only stared at my brother. He took all his energy and threw it into one swing. Center field it flew, and all eyes were on the ball. The outfielder, with a trying lunge, missed it. My brother flew to first base, and my teammate on third was almost home. I took off. My dad always coached me to not watch the ball, but to run as hard as I could. So I did. Turning second, with my blue sandles leaving a beaded imprint in the sand. I fled to third. I looked up for my dad to tell me what to do. Everyone was cheering. I could hear my mom’s worrying voice hoping that I wouldn’t get hurt. The opposing team was screaming with anger. Then my dad pointed and yelled â€Å"Go home, go home, slide into home!† Then my brother continued,† Go Makaela! You’ve got it!† I rounded third, and could see the home plate. I knew I was safe, until I saw the ball. I slid, just like my dad said. My legs felt like they were rubbing on sand paper and dust flew into the air. Cheers were still flooding, as the umpire called out. With bloody knees, sand in my hair and a broken spirit, I slowly stood up and walked to the bench. My brother walked over to me and said, â€Å"Go get the cookies† with a smirk on his face. At that point I realized it didn’t matter that I lost the game, I gave it my all.

Essay Genre essays

Essay Genre essays A documentary by definition is according to the Academy Rule 12 of the rules for the Academy Award: a non-fictional movie. Documentaries are films made for the sole purpose of persuasion, designed chiefly to get the viewer to see the makers point of view or the point of view they are presenting. Documentaries often have a narrator who helps the story or is the driving force for the whole film, but this is not always so. Documentaries can occupy one or more of four broad categories, these are, Journalistic which involves information and analysis. Social Comment, documentaries which reveal problems within society. Educational, which concern themselves with entertainment but main objective is to teach. And finally Magazine which according to Film Study Collection: Genres is a variety of short documentaries and newsreel essays included in a single program with a studio host. The two documentaries being concentrated on in this essay are both social comment. Bowling for Columbine is a fast paced, in your face documentary that uses very fast and often questionable editing to provide a visual bombardment of images to get its point across. Critically acclaimed director Michael Moore shocks the viewer into his point of view. He uses mini-interviews with people associated with the topic of gun violence, and school shootings, to give the viewer a persuasive taste of what Michael Moore is presenting. The documentary provides a virtual smorgasbord of short news clips, interviews, cartoons, and background music all narrated by Michael Moore. The movie makes strong use of juxtaposition as is evident in a scene where the viewer is shocked with scenes of violence, death and killing all set to the Louis Armstrong song Its a Wonderful World. Michael Moore makes strong use of hyperbole, and hard to follow conclusions to exploit and expose the many problems of the United States of America, a society that the documen ...